The Relationship of Social Class and Educational Attainment in the US Essay Example for Free

The Relationship of Social Class and Educational Attainment in the US Essay Introduction Social class typically refers to an individual’s position in an established hierarchy in a particular society. Classifications of people have been established in all societies since the dawn of civilization. The hierarchy may be based on wealth, ability, education, occupation, even geographical location. Historically, social class pertains to groupings to refer to occupation or role, i.e. landlord or tenant. Each grouping is accompanied by privileges and responsibilities, with varying levels of control and power within the society.   It also generally carries some type of class identity, so while it applies to individuals, it is not merely a personal characteristic, but exists within a certain context that applies to groups of people. This shared identity is affected by attitudes and lifestyle of its members, and thus establishes a â€Å"culture† or a set of values and practices. (â€Å"Social class†)   The purpose of this paper is to consider current research   that deal with the degree of correlation, if any, between social class and educational attainment in the United States. Review of Literature Education is considered the most widely used aspect that determines social position together with occupational status and income, but none of these factors are pure concepts to be taken in isolation. They are each affected by other social factors such as race and ethnicity.   Educational attainment directly affects social status in the sense that it provides credentials and access to economic benefits as well as establishes social networks.   In the period between 1940 and 1980, the number of persons to have completed higher education has increased to 68.6% of the total US population according to census data. (MacArthur and MacArthur â€Å"Measurement approaches†) The role of education in achieving social status is an important one, and attempts to study the variables that directly affect educational outcomes usually focus on parental education and occupation as well as race, gender and cognitive ability. A study of 1,927 subjects focused on the effect of self-esteem and locus of control (nature of environmental control) on educational outcomes of children net of these other factors. It was found self-esteem and locus of control affect educational outcomes independent of each other and of other variables. (Wang, Kick, Fraser and Burns 288-289) While some people are born into a class, such as royalty, most develop social mobility through shifts in education, occupation or income. There are no tangible measurements to establish social class, but it may be inferred from general guidelines based on achievements. Of the indicators of social status, education is considered the simplest and most universal, although it is limited generally up to early adulthood, when educational activity typically ends. Social class may have significant effects on educational attainment mostly because social class is typically associated with economic capacity. Wealth has a substantial impact on education because it provides access to resources that may not be available to one of lower economic means. Other characteristics of social class include levels of self esteem and locus of control, which also has significant effects on educational outcomes and occupational choice. (â€Å"Social class†) Rouse and Barrow state that students from lower socioeconomic families tend to attain less in education because they have greater psychological costs and less access to good schools that those from families with higher incomes (99). Since higher education attainment translates to occupations with higher earning potential, the long-term effect of this trend is to propagate a cyclical pattern of disadvantaged families producing low-earning progeny who will in turn raise a disadvantaged family. Attempts to break this cycle through programs like the â€Å"No Child Left Behind Act† has met with small success. Many studies conclude that smaller class sizes are the most effective way to improve student achievement. The importance of social class in influencing a person’s life prospects is investigated in the US. The goal of providing equal opportunity for all Americans in achieving success in life solely through their own efforts and skills regardless of social class is as yet not completely in place. Social class still has a great influence on an individual’s chance in leading a productive existence despite efforts to level the playing field. The tendency for parents, even in an open and fair democracy, to extend the advantages which they have to further the interests of their children prevails, resulting in a greater access to opportunities and resources. This is especially true of people from the higher socioeconomic class in the United States. (McMurrer and Sawhill â€Å"Class Still Matters†) Data from following the progress of 20,000 eight graders from 1988 to 1994 from the National Education Longitudinal Study (NELS) of 1988 provided a wealth of information about the educational experiences of the subjects. The subjects were divided in four groups based on their socioeconomic status, the first group (Group 1) being the most advantaged and the fourth group (Group 4) the most disadvantaged. Results showed that the average test scores of children from Group 1 were higher that those from Group 4. Group 4 children were more likely to be held back and to drop out of high school than those in Group 1. The results also suggest that parental abilities, which may be hereditary, may account for the economic status of the family, and should also be considered as an influence on educational attainment. (Rouse and Barrow 100-102) A study by Gordon Dahl and Lance Lochner focused on the effect of higher income on academic performance. They found for every $ 1,000 increase in income for a family with two children, math and reading scores also increased up to 5%. (Rouse and Barrow 104) The correlation between fathers and sons in the US with regards to income and occupations is very strong, to a degree of 0.4, which means that there is a significant probability that an adult son will approximate the income of the father, and sons of white collar workers has double the probability than sons of blue collar workers to become a white collar worker. (McMurrer and Sawhill â€Å"Class Still Matters†) Source: http://www.urban.org/publications/307017.html#chart2#chart2 Recent trends suggest that the attainment of higher education has begun to change this pattern of occupational mimicry. This is fueled by the economic boom in the US which has unfortunately slowed down, and the trend of an upwardly mobile labor force has slowed down with it. Overall, upward mobility composition is that of growing individual opportunity (college education) and a lackluster economy. Social class in no longer the force it had been before, which will benefit people from the lower socioeconomic brackets. For those in the upper social strata, the emphasis on individual ability and skills and the decline of social class importance will likely result in a drop in social status. (McMurrer and Sawhill â€Å"The Offsetting Effect of Economic Growth†) One considerable portion of the US population which may benefit from this decline in insular social classification is second-generation Americans, or those who were born in the US of immigrant parents. Nearly one-fourth of young Americans are second-generation immigrants and most are found in the cities like Los Angeles. Recent migration trends in the US have transformed the social character of American society to a marked degree. The long-term effects of these patterns are most evident in the educational attainment profile of the population. On average, these second generation population, especially those of Asian ethnic origin, exhibit better academic performance than native-born Americans. As an illustration, 32% of all Asian high school graduates who applied for slots in the University of California was accepted, as compared to 16% eligible native-born American, and 7% of Latino-descended applicants. (Feliciano) Feliciano accounts for these disparities by considering two explanations: cultural values, belief systems and attitude differences, i.e. children of Asian families tend to be more successful because of the high currency placed on academic achievement; and structural differences, i.e. accessibility of opportunities and resources. Immigrant social class status may be different before and after migration to the US, which could explain why some groups are more successful at overcoming barriers to educational attainment such as poverty and low socioeconomic status than others. To investigate this theory, relevant pre-migration information on educational levels in 31 immigrant groups was determined by cross-referencing census data in the US and the home country of the immigrant group from 1997 to 2001, using the Net Difference Index. The subjects were second-generation Americans ages 20-40 with at least some college education. Results show that immigrants to the US tended to have attained higher educational levels than those who stayed in the home country, especially those who come from countries remote from the US, such as Asian countries. (Feliciano â€Å"Methodology†) In considering the correlation of pre-migration class status with second-generation educational attainment, a strong positive relationship was revealed.   Regardless to their social status in the US, children of highly-educated immigrants demonstrated the highest educational attainment rates. While pre-migration class status had a significant effect on second-generation educational attainment, economic security in the US as a factor accounted for 41% of the variability. In effect, to accurately account for ethnic variability in academic success among second-generation Americans, social status of the parents before and after migration should be considered. Such cross-referencing adequately explains 60% of the disparity in educational attainment observed in this population segment. (Feliciano â€Å"Pre-Migration Origins and Second Generation Outcomes†) Summary   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Social class is a nebulous concept that dictates the individual’s eventual role in society to a great extent. Educational attainment depends in a significant way on social class because of the socioeconomic factors that influence is such as income, occupation and family values are all related to social class. Individuals from the higher social class are more likely to have parents who possess high cognitive ability, more self-esteem, more money and better access to resources that would enable the attainment of higher education such as college. Second-generation Americans with immigrant parents who have lower social status in the US but higher social status in the home country are more likely as well to complete a college education. However, public policies and other programs aimed at providing higher education access to individuals from lower social classes could help to break the like father-like son trend in educational attainment and occupational choice and facilitate an upwardly mobile majority. References â€Å"Social class.† Encyclopedia of Public Health. 2007. 15 March 2007. http://www.answers.com/topic/class-structure Feliciano, Cynthia. â€Å"Another way to assess the second generation: look at the parents.† Migration Information Source. 1 May 2006. 15 March 2007. http://www.migrationinformation.org/Feature/display.cfm?id=396 MacArthur, John D. and MacArthur, Catherine T. â€Å"Educational Status.† UCSF. 8 August 2001. 15 March 2007. http://www.macses.ucsf.edu/Research/Social%20Environment/notebook/education.html Mani, Anandi and Mullin, Charles H. â€Å"Choosing the right pond: social approval and occupational choice.† Williams College. October 2001. 15 March 2007. http://www.williams.edu/Economics/mani/manimullin.pdf McMurrer, Daniel P. and Sawhill, Isabel V. â€Å"The declining importance of class.† Urban Institute. Number 4 in Series, Opportunity in America 01 April 1997. 15 March 2007. http://www.urban.org/publications/307017.html Rouse, Cecilia Elena and Barrow, Lisa. â€Å"U.S. elementary and secondary schools: equalizing opportunity or replicating the status quo?† The Future of Children 16.2 (2006) 15 March 2007. http://www.futureofchildren.org/usr_doc/06_5563_Rouse-Barrow.pdf Wang, Li-Ya, Kick, Edward, Fraser, James, and Burns, Thomas Jerome. â€Å"Status attainment in America: the roles of locus of control and self-esteem in educational and occupational outcomes.† The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. (2007) 15 March 2007. http://www.unc.edu/~fraser18/publications/Locus_of_Control_SelfEsteem_%20and_Status_Attainment.pdf

Describe how Arthur Miller creates an exciting climax Essay Example for Free

Describe how Arthur Miller creates an exciting climax Essay Describe how Arthur Miller creates an exciting climax for both acts of A View from the Bridge'  A View from the Bridge by Arthur Miller, is a play about obsession and betrayal. The main character, Eddie Carbone, becomes overprotective over his niece, Catherine, to the degree of infatuation. This obsession helps to cause the break down of Eddies marriage, as his wife, Beatrice realises the alarming nature of Eddies fixation. Eddies feelings for Catherine existed before Beatrices cousins, Marco and Rodolfo came, but their arrival intensifies the situation, as Eddie becomes more and more jealous of Rodolfo, and of Catherines love for him. This play is a tragedy and, like most tragedies, it is serious and ends with the death of the main character, Eddie. Eddie dies after betraying his wifes cousins to the immigration bureau. As a result, Marco, who is filled with hatred and in need of justice, stabs him. Arthur Miller was a New Yorker who worked on the Brooklyn docks, for a time. His experience of the docks and of the people around them, led him to write this play, which is set there. During this coursework, my aim is to study the ends of the two acts in depth to see what techniques Miller uses to make them dramatically effective. 1. During the last scene of act one (from page 39 when Catherine puts paper doll on the phonograph) we find out about the relationships of characters in more depth. The scene  2. Our understanding of this plays characters changes considerably in this final part of act 1. Marco who seemed, prior to this scene, to be quiet and shy shows what he actually feels by demonstrating his feelings about Eddie  3. There are many surprises in this scene, we as an audience do not expect Marco who has previously been shy and quiet to make such a blatant challenge as he does in this scene 4. This last scene in act one is used very effectively by Arthur miller to sow the seeds of events which are going to happen in the 2nd act of the play  5. The action in this scene Marcos action of holding up a chair triumphantly in front of Eddie is an interesting and significant action because the chair seems to be a symbolic weapon. Marco is threatening Eddie with it but, in contrast, he actually uses a weapon to kill Eddie in the final scene of the play.  6. although there seems to only be one conflict between characters in this (the one between Marco and Eddie; with the chair) there are actually many 7. This final scene leaves many questions unanswered. The conflicts between the characters in this scene could lead the audience to speculate as to how things will develop in the next act but although this scene gives the audience, some idea of how things turn out it does not tell them everything. They may ask themselves what is going to happen to Catherine and Rodolfos relationship since it seems plain that Eddie dislikes Rodolfo and disapproves of his relationship with his niece.  8. Particularly interesting characters within this scene are Marco, who has changed so much and is so different in this final scene of act one to the previous part of the play. 9. The Characters in this scene are very interesting to observe on their own but it is also interesting to see how Arthur Miller has contrasted the actions of his characters in this scene. One such contrast is that between Marco and Eddie. Eddie uses Aggressive action, such as boxing to make his point whereas Marcos subtle challenge with the chair is non aggressive but yet still makes the intended point. These contrasts between the two mens actions are very interesting and are very effective in demonstrating the diffe 10. Emotions of the audience towards characters are mixed. They may feel happy for Catherine and Rodolfo in that theyve found each other and seem so happy. Some may speculate, however about that this relationships days are numbered due to Eddies obviously hostile feelings towards rodolfo. 1. The situations that develop in this play would be difficult for anyone to deal with. Eddie finds the situation that he is in especially difficult and consequently he is seriously affected by it. In this play Eddie goes from being a popular man, respected in the community to being a man willing to betray his own family and, in the final scene one prepared to kill. Eddie started by just being over protective of Catherine, which developed into jealousy of Rodolfo because Catherine loved him and this, in turn developed into passionate hatred of both Marco and Rodolfo. Eddie hardly understands what he himself is feeling at the end of the play. These emotional changes are central to Arthur millers play since they help to cause the chain of events leading up to the final tragic end and are very important in creating interest and drama in the play.

Rise of the Modern State and China in a Democratic World

Rise of the Modern State and China in a Democratic World Rick Chelton 1). What is the relationship between war and state building in Western Europe? Why might state-building follow a different path in the post-colonial world? When considering the rise of the modern State many political scientists and historians consider Western Europe to be an exceptional case for a variety of different reasons. These reasons tend to be connected to each other and can be traced back to the dominion of the Roman Empire around 2,000 years ago. The Roman Empire connected thousands of miles of land with infrastructure and governed them under a single political machine. After the Roman Empire was effectively destroyed by invaders and left to crumble, most of the lands that it had previously governed fell into a dark age of anarchy. Eventually this anarchy would settle into the system we call feudalism. This happened because warlords would gather groups of men and declared lordship over small areas of land that they could defend easily. The lords would demand payment from the peasants that resided on their land in return for protection from rival warlords. The constant threat of rival warlords created a highly competitive envir onment in which the organizational structure of these groups was forced to rapidly evolve. Because of the volatile environment the strongest groups survived and absorbed the weaker ones. No one state was ever able to conquer the entire continent as the Romans had before, partly due to the numerous barriers that exist on the continent both geographic and ethnic in nature that limited the ability of any group to become too powerful in comparison to its rivals. The development of the State as an organizational structure led Europe to eventually have the highest concentration of politically powerful states on the globe, because of this the states of Europe would go on to colonize the rest of the world. When the Europeans took over these colonies they would impose the organizational structure of the state by force onto the native populations. Though Europes control of their colonies would gradually deteriorate, the institution of the state remained strong. People all around the world accepted the structure of the state as a necessary was to govern themselves. Over the course of a few hundred years the entire world became totally covered in modern states. The reason that the emergence of states in the postcolonial world happened so quickly and with such a relatively small amount of conflict was because the State was forcefully introduced to these areas. This is in contrast to Europe where it developed naturally without outside interference. 2) How do developed authoritarian regimes such as China challenge the liberal theory of democracy? Does Moores structural theory provide a better explanation for developed authoritarian states? Explain. China is the biggest challenge for the Liberal Theory of Democracy to explain because of its high level of development. Liberal theory would predict that as a society goes through economic development it would experience a cultural change that would shift its culture gradually towards democracy. Eventually the existing regime would have no choice but to transition to democracy or be overthrown. China goes against this theory because it has undergone a massive amount of economic change over the past couple of decades and shows no signs of slowing down. Unfortunately for this theory China has one of the strongest authoritarian regimes in the world and does not seem to be transitioning towards democracy. There are multiple authoritarian regimes similar to China, like Malaysia, which have experienced large amount of economic growth but have formed strong authoritarian regimes instead of moving towards democracy. This is problematic for the Liberal Theory of Democracy, luckily we have the structural theory to turn to for cases like this. Moores structural theory of democracy and authoritarianism states that as a society experiences large levels of economic growth it will solidify the regime if it is either authoritarian or democratic. In other words a democracy that experiences rapid economic growth will become a more stable. The same is true for authoritarian regimes like China, where rapid economic growth will lead to a strengthening of the authoritarian regime. This turns out to be a much better theory when considering powerful authoritarian regimes like China and Malaysia.

The Role of Women in Chinese Culture Essay -- World Cultures

The Role of Women in Chinese Culture In traditional Chinese culture, women were inferior to men. They were not allowed to make any decisions concerning their families. Their only purpose in life was to stay home and take care of the households. "A woman's duties are to cook the five grains, heat the wine, look after her parents-in-law, make clothes, and that's all! ...she must follow the `three submissions.' When she is young, she must submit to her parents. After her marriage, she must submit to her husband. When she is widowed, she must submit to her son. These are the rules of propriety." ("The Mother Of Mencius", p.34) That's the principle that was followed in traditional China. Some of the examples of this are discussed in this essay. Young girls were taught to be good housewives and good mothers; they had to submit to their fathers. Children were not allowed to disagree with the fathers. However, if a son had an opinion, he was allowed to discuss it with the father and daughters were not able to do so. Young women were not able to choose their husbands; the parents set it...

Ginsberg, Allen. Howl and Other Poems. San Francisco: City Light Books,

Ginsberg, Allen. Howl and Other Poems. San Francisco: City Light Books, 2001. Capitalizing on Capitalizing in Ginsberg’s Howl Ginsberg was a literary revolutionary as can be seen in his poetry. He pushed form and genre, theory and confrontation, confession and controversy right to the threshold and over the doorway of societal standards. In pushing and pushing, Ginsberg creates a new vocabulary for certain words by capitalizing them and giving them the significance of the ‘proper noun.’ By capitalizing the first letter of certain words, Ginsberg gives a solid identity to intangible things and redefines their role in a corrupted society that has destroyed the â€Å"best minds† of his generation. Heaven, Terror, Time, Zen, Eternity, Capitalism, Absolute Reality and Space find their niche among the cities and events in section one. None of the words begin a sentence and some are used multiple times, giving them even more validity in their existence. Somewhere along the line the â€Å"best minds of [Ginsberg’s] generation† â€Å"bared their brains to Heaven,† â€Å"cowered†¦listening to the Terror,† in the midst of â€Å"poles†¦illuminating all the motionless world of Time† and â€Å"vanished into nowhere Zen,† â€Å"followed a brilliant Spaniard to converse about America and Eternity,† â€Å"burned cigarette holes in their arms protesting the narcotic tobacco haze of Capitalism,† or â€Å"were run down by the drunken taxicabs of Absolute Reality† (9-13, 16). Despite Ginsberg’s rants towards hysteria and chaos, there is some hope in the vulnerability of men who â€Å"bared their brains to Heaven.† There is a strong sense of redemption in the Eternity that is continuously referred to page to page. This also gives the minds some validity and a sense of ownership of... ...ey tie in with the Absolute Reality way of approaching the world. At the same time that he devalues Visions and Dreams, calling them, â€Å"the whole boatload of sensitive bullshit,† he also seems to feel that way because they have been devalued by America, rather than by be devalued in their own right (22). The few remaining capitalized words maintain that strand of hope that Ginsberg gave in section one. Even if America has devalued Dreams, Visions, and Epiphanies, they are still there for the taking in some sense. By the third section, Ginsberg has found some middle ground and solidarity. There is hope for the destroyed minds and corrupted America. Ginsberg attaches his own meaning to these words to set up the minds vs. society and provides some eternal hope that stands outside of society’s domination and gives everyone some ultimate answers and consistency.

Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder Essay -- OCD Essays

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD) is a mental illness that traps people in endless cycles of repetitive thoughts and behaviors. Pierre Janet described obsessive-compulsive disorder by using the term psychasthenia. Sigmund Freud described obsessions and compulsions as psychological defenses used to deal with sexual and aggressive conflicts in the unconscious mind (Bruce Bower: 1987). OCD is also known as â€Å"The Doubting Disease,† because it’s as though the mind doesn’t register when the person does a certain action, which triggers the source of the obsession (USA Today:1995). Unlike most people with anxiety disorders, those diagnosed with OCD are more obsessed with what will happen to others instead of themselves (Edna Foa: 1995). Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder occurs in a spectrum from mild to severe. At some point the person will see the actions or thoughts as unreasonable and senseless. All people have habits and routines, but what makes obsessive-compulsive people different is the fact that their obsessions and compulsions interfere with their daily lives (American Family Physician: 2000). They spend large amounts of time doing odd rituals. The rituals can take hours a day and make the sufferers miserable and doesn’t allow them for much of a business or social life (Harvard Mental Health Letter). At one OCD clinic, many had lost years of work to their symptoms. Seventy-five percent said the disorder interfered with their family lives and thirteen percent had attempted suicide (Harvard Mental Health Letter: 1998). Phebe Tucker, a psychiatrist at the University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, explained, the most common obsession is washing hands for fear of contamination. Other acts are counting over and over, checking locks, hoarding items such as newspapers or cartons, repeatedly dressing and undressing, and walking in and out of doorways. The thought and behavior patterns are senseless and distressing. They can make it very difficult for a person to function properly at work, school, or even at home. Obsessions take the form of doubts, fears, images, or impulses. (Harvard Mental Health Center: 1998) Obsessions are unwanted ideas, images, and impulses that run through a person’s mind over and over again. They are intrusive, unpleasant and produce high anxiety. (www.lycos.com: April 2000) Sometimes the obsessions come once and a while and other... ...ehavioral therapy. Eventually they will overcome their compulsions and be able to control their obsessions.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Works Cited Kendall, Phillip C. and Constance Hamman. (1998). Abnormal Psychology: Obsessive Compulsive Disorder: Understanding Human Problems. Boston New York OCD: What it is and how to treat it. (March 1, 2000). American Family Physician, V61 pg. 1532 General Review: Obsessive Compulsive Part I. (Oct. 1998) Harvard Mental Health Letter, v15 I 4 General Review: Obsessive Compulsive Part II. (Nov. 1998) Harvard Mental Health Letter, v15 i5 OCD Meds not likely to replace therapy: the challenge is to tailor the right combination of treatments for patient. (Jan. 1997). Behavioral Health Treatment, v2 n1 pg1 Begely, Sharon and Nina A. Biddle. For the obsessed, the mind can fix the brain. (Feb. 26, 1996) Newsweek, v127 n9 pg. 60 Help for obsessive-compulsive disorder. (aug. 1995). USA Today, v124 pg. 12 Foa, Edna B. How do treatments for obsessive compulsive disorder compare?. (July 1995). Harvard Mental Health Letter v12 n1 pg.8 Obsessive Compulsive Disorder: review of drug treatment. (Sept. 15, 1994). American Family Physician, v50 pg. 831

Research Paper on Plato

Abstract Many Philosophers made a difference in society but Plato is perhaps recognized as the most famous. His writings have had a profound effect on people, politics, and the philosophy throughout the centuries. He was a public figure and he made major contributions to society. Plato helped to lay the philosophical foundations of modern culture through his ideas and writings. One of the most philosophical thinkers of Western civilization, Plato is the only author from ancient Greek times whose writings survive intact. His collection consists of thirty-five dialogues and thirteen letters, though the authorship of some is contested.Plato was born in Athens, into a prosperous aristocratic family. His Father’s name was Ariston and his Mother’s name was Perictione. His relative named Glaucon was one of the best-known members of the Athenian nobility. Plato's name was Aristocles, his nickname Plato originates from wrestling circles, Plato means broad, and it probably refers either to his physical appearance or his wrestling style. â€Å"Plato is, by any reckoning, one of the most dazzling writers in the Western literary tradition and one of the most penetrating, wide-ranging, and influential authors in the history of philosophy,† (Kraut, 2009).Plato was born during the Golden Age of Athens’s which saw the birth of classical architecture, drama, arts and politics. However, as he was growing up he observed the decline of Athens as a cultural center. He witnessed instances of cruelty, disloyalty, and dishonesty and it was in clear violation of his values. It was also during this time that Plato fell under the influence of Socrates, who engaged the people of Athens in philosophical discussions. â€Å"It was into this bright, sly, worldly atmosphere that Socrates appeared, moving questioningly about the streets of Athens†. Plato 1984). In 339 Socrates was brought to trial and charged with having false Gods and corrupting the youth. Soc rates was found guilty on the charge and was sentenced to death. The execution of Socrates weighed heavily on Plato and he turned away from politics, he thought the behavior of the courts was unjust. He decided not to get involved in political life, instead he decided to leave Athens with other friends of Socrates to travel and study. During his travels he met with all kinds of people and studied not only philosophy but geometry, astronomy, and religious teachings.Socrates was extremely influential to Plato and he was the main character in numerous writings, he was also influenced by Heraclitus, Parmenides, and the Pythagoreans. One of the most important goals Plato set for himself was to keep the memory of Socrates alive by recording and bringing about the kind of impact that Socrates had on people. Nearly all of Plato’s work takes the structure of dialogues in which Socrates is usually the main character. One of the goals of a Plato’s dialogue is to engross the reade r in philosophical questions related to the ideas being discussed.The Socrates of the Platonic dialogues is modeled after the real Socrates but it is in part an imaginary character used to impart Platonic themes. Plato’s dialogues are divided into three groups, the early or Socratic dialogues; the dialogues of middle age; and the dialogues of old age. In the early dialogues, Socrates is the main character, but it is generally believed that Plato is expressing his own views. These are the only remaining dialogues of Socrates teachings hence; they are referred to as the Socratic dialogues. In The Apology Socrates was accused of having false gods and corrupting the youth.While on trial Socrates claimed that he was innocent and was not at all wise, â€Å"Men of Athens, I honor and love you; but I shall obey God rather than you, and while I have life and strength I shall never cease from the practice and teaching of philosophy†¦ Understand that I shall never alter my ways, n ot even if I have to die many times. † (Plato 1984). Middle Dialogues During Plato's middle period he wrote the following, Meno, Republic, Euthydemus, Menexenus, Cratylus, Phaedrus, Symposium and Phaedo. The most important difference between these writings and his earlier works is that he is establishing his own voice in philosophy.In the Meno Plato introduces us to the Socratic idea that no one knowingly does wrong, â€Å"Virtue is the desire of things honourable and the power of attaining them. † Plato (1984). In the Phaedo we become familiar with the platonic doctrine of the Forms; this is where Plato makes a claim as to the immortality of the soul. Plato's most influential work, The Republic, is part of the middle dialogues. It is a discussion of the virtues of justice, courage and wisdom. It addresses the question of how do humans approach living a good life. The dialogue finishes by looking at various forms of government and describing the ideal state.The allegory of the â€Å"Myth of the Cave† is also in The Republic it is an important writing because it contains the main points of his philosophy. It is intended to be a metaphor for education and it explains issues regarding the theory of knowledge. Plato believed one must explore the belief that a greater reality exists. It is through this belief that a person can gain greater insight into true reality and become enlightened. Without it we are like the prisoners of a cave who only see the shadows of objects and live in complete darkness. â€Å"And now, I said, let me show in a figure how far our nature is enlightened or unenlightened, behold!Human beings living in an underground den† (Plato 1927). It is only through philosophy that we can come out of the cave into the true world. â€Å"Who is best suited to rule the state – lovers of opinion or â€Å"true philosophers†? (Plato 1927) His final years at the Academy he wrote the later dialogues which included the Parmenides, Theatetus, Sophist, Statesmas, Timaeus, Critias, Philebus, and Laws. It should be noted that Socrates has a minor role in these writings. Plato examines his metaphysical theories through these dialogues. He discusses art, dance, music, poetry, drama, and ethics in connection to immortality and the mind.He also dedicates himself to the philosophy of mathematics, politics and religion. Plato argued that women were qualified to play a role in politics and philosophy. In The Republic, Socrates argued that women were as capable as men in pursuit of accomplishments. There is a suggestion that women should be educated for their roles in the class of guardians and possibly work next to men. A woman’s role could be significant in society, but different from a man’s role. Even though Plato believed that women were necessary in a working society, he did not mean he thought women were equals of men.Plato thought that women lacked the strength of men and that women were more suited for other responsibilities in life. â€Å"If women are expected to do the same work as men, we must teach them the same things. † (Plato 1927) The impact of Plato’s work cannot be measured or calculated. His writings had great influence on the entire intellectual development of Western civilization. Despite the fact that Plato did not leave a well-formed, rigid philosophical system he is considered the father for all forms of philosophical idealism and dualism. The object of education is to teach us to love what is beautiful. † (Plato 1984). After he died the Academy continued until AD 529, when it was closed due to its pagan teachings. Neo-Platonism, founded by the 3rd-century philosopher Plotinus, was an important development of Platonism. It was a philosophical system which was as a combination of Platonic, Pythagorean, and Aristotelian elements. Originally it was opposed to Christianity but later on it integrated it. It dominated European thought until the 13th century and re-emerged during the Renaissance.The most important Renaissance Neo-Platonist was â€Å"Marsilio Ficino† who developed significant ideas from Plato and Neo-Platonism. Ficino founded of the Academy in Firenze and was responsible for the circulation of Neo-Platonic ideas. Ficino is credited with translating all of Platos’ dialogues into Latin and produced a great work called Platonic Theology, in which he outlines Neo-Platonism. His philosophy is based on the doctrine that the human soul is the center of the cosmos. It is the only thing that sits between the world of ideas and the world is the soul.Neo-Platonism was revived in the 17th century by the Cambridge Platonists such as Cudworth and Smith. The school stressed the importance of reason, maintaining that faith and reason are not that different. Rene Descartes an 18th century philosopher and Neo-Platonist developed a method to achieve truths. If something is not recognized by the intelle ct or reason can be classified as knowledge. According to Descartes. These truths are gained â€Å"without any sensory experience† (Descartes). He argued that as a result of his method, reason alone determined knowledge and that this could be done independently of the senses. Cogito ergo sum, I think therefore I exist† (Descartes) Plato developed an absolutist ethical theory which is that there is a greater good toward which to aspire. He developed this theory to respond to the skepticism and the beliefs of the Sophists who Plato felt did not preach wisdom, but rather their opinions. Plato tried to protect the part of reasoning in human life though he had resistance from the ancient Greek preachers know as the Sophists. They came from different cities and proclaimed that they were able to impart knowledge to young men how to live prosperous lives.Even though the Sophists did not belong to a school and did not have a common creed, some opinions were typical of them as a group and were absolutely conflicting to the views of Plato. The Sophists were great communicators and skilled public speakers. Plato felt that the Sophists were more likely to appeal to emotions rather than to reason. According to Plato philosophers influence people’s souls not their bodies and Plato agreed with Socrates in thinking that the nurturing of the soul is more vital than the nurturing of the body.Furthermore, he also believed that true leaders need to have wisdom, and knowledge. Plato's influence has been monumental as one philosopher said the history of philosophy is simply â€Å"a series of footnotes to Plato. † (Whitehead) Plato's has been criticized down through the centuries for his philosophy of the forms. His ideas of the just life and an ideal state are complex. Plato tended to specifically ignores much of human nature. Plato did not think in the realm of the physical world, he was always looking to a different one where things exist only if he can prove there existence.References Kraut, R. (2009, Sept) Plato Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved from http://plato. stanford. edu/entries/plato; Plato. (1984) Great dialogues of Plato New York: Mentor Books trans. by Benjamin Jowett Blackburn, S. (1945) The republic of Plato. (45 ed. ). London: Oxford University Press, USA. trans. By Desmond Lee Descartes. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved from http://plato. stanford. edu/entries/descartes-works; Alfred North Whitehead. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved from http://plato. stanford. edu/entries/whitehead/